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The fricative allophones are sometimes indicated in reconstructed forms to make it easier to understand the development of Old English consonants. (This discussion ignores the effect of trisyllabic laxing.) The Old English consonant X - technically a “voiceless velar fricative”, pronounced as in the “ch” of loch or Bach - disappeared from English, and the Old English word burX (place), for example, was replaced with “-burgh”, “-borough”, “-brough” or “-bury” in many place names. These included a number of vowel shifts, and the palatalization of velar consonants in many positions. This palatalization is similar to what occurred in Italian and Swedish. The time periods for some of the early stages are quite short due to the extensive population movements occurring during the Migration Period (early AD), which resulted in rapid dialect fragmentation. Note that, in the column on modern spelling, CV means a sequence of a single consonant followed by a vowel. ēa, ēo, īo = [æə], [eə], [iə] . When palatalized: The contexts for palatalization were sometimes different for different sounds: The palatals /tʃ/ and [dʒ] reverted to their non-palatal equivalents /k/ and /g/ when they came to stand immediately before a consonant, even if this occurred at a significantly later period, as when *sēċiþ ("seeks") became sēcþ, and *senġiþ ("singes") became sengþ. A similar loss of -(i)j- occurred in the other West Germanic languages, although after the earliest records of those languages (especially Old Saxon, which still has written settian, hēliand corresponding to Old English settan "to set", hǣlend "savior"). A number of changes took place during the Middle English period which altered the sound structure inherited from Old English. Examples (all are neuter nouns):[18]. : PG, strong adjectives in the feminine nom. However, each vowel has split into a number of different pronunciations in Modern English, depending on the phonological context. The ogonek (e.g. Specifically: Old English diphthongs also arose from other later processes, such as breaking, palatal diphthongization, back mutation and i-mutation, which also gave an additional diphthong ie /iy/. "Overlong" vowels were shortened to regular long vowels. of the English sound system, however, it is not an exhaustive list of all changes that have shaped Modern English phonology. Mercian and Northumbrian) dialects of Old English, a process called smoothing undid many of the effects of breaking. [5] For io and ie, the height-harmonic interpretations /iu/ and /iy/[who?] Many exceptional outcomes occurred in particular environments, e.g. Palatalization of the velar consonants /k/ and /ɡ/ occurred in certain environments, mostly involving front vowels. vowel loss) does not occur in closed syllables, e.g. The above two mergers did not occur in many regional dialects as late as the 20th century (e.g. faran "to go" from Proto-Germanic *faraną but faren "gone" from Proto-Germanic *faranaz. Thus, this "period" may not have been a real timespan, but may simply cover certain areal changes that did not reach into North Germanic. gād "lack" < *gādu (by high-vowel loss) < PG *gaidwą (cf. The Ingvaeonic group was probably never homogeneous, but was divided further into Old Saxon and Anglo-Frisian. For example. slǣpan, sċēap (< Proto-West-Germanic *slāpąn, *skāpă < Proto-Germanic *slēpaną, skēpą) versus Anglian slēpan, sċēp. We give the exceptions below. For details of the changes, see Germanic umlaut, and particularly the section on i-mutation in Old English. ē, ō). Changes in this period affected the Ingvaeonic languages, but not the more southerly Central and Upper German languages. For historical developments prior to the Old English period, see Proto-Germanic language. But … indicates an unexpected change, whereas the simple notation ">" indicates an expected change. Proto-Germanic had the closing diphthongs /ai, au, eu/ (and [iu], an allophone of /eu/ when an /i/ or /j/ followed in the next syllable). A number of restrictions governed whether back mutation took place: In the Anglian (i.e. In the same contexts where the voiceless fricatives /f, θ, s/ become voiced, i.e. It is therefore assumed that, at least at the time of the occurrence of breaking and retraction (several hundred years before recorded Old English), /h/ was pronounced [x] or similar – at least when following a vowel – and /l/ and /r/ before a consonant had a velar or retroflex quality and were already pronounced [ɫ] and [rˠ], or similar. vowels were often lengthened in late Old English before /ld, nd, mb/; vowels changed in complex ways before /r/, throughout the history of English; vowels were diphthongized in Middle English before /h/; new diphthongs arose in Middle English by the combination of vowels with Old English w, g /ɣ/ > /w/, and ġ /j/; etc. This period is estimated to be c. AD 1400–1600. For a detailed description of the changes between Old English and Middle/Modern English, see the article on the phonological history of English. Note also the following apparent exceptions: In reality, these aren't exceptions because at the time of high-vowel loss the words had the same two-syllable long-short root structure as hēafod (see above). The traditional view is that e, ē, æ, and ǣ actually became diphthongs,[12][13] but a minority view is that they remained as monophthongs:[14], The main arguments in favor of this view are the fact that the corresponding process involving back vowels is indeed purely orthographic, and that diphthongizations like /æ/ → [æɑ] and /e/ → [iy] (if this, contrary to the traditional view, is the correct interpretation of orthographic ie) are phonetically unmotivated in the context of a preceding palatal or postalveolar consonant. [7] This is called a-restoration, because it partly restored original /a/, which had earlier been fronted to /æ/ (see above). (This may be taken to imply that a nasal consonant n, m caused a preceding long vowel to nasalize.) after various changes, irrelevant here (e.g. If ġeong and sċeolde had the diphthong eo, they would develop into Modern English *yeng and *sheeld instead of young and should. "to sunder" and "asunder"). ēoc,ēc; occ. The sounds /k~tʃ/ and /ɡ~j/ had almost certainly split into distinct phonemes by Late West Saxon, the dialect in which the majority of Old English documents are written. Proto-Norse. This order is necessary to account for words like slēan "to slay" (pronounced /slæːɑn/) from original *slahan: /ˈslahan/ > /ˈslæhan/ (a-fronting) > /ˈslæɑhɑn/ (breaking; inhibits a-restoration) > /ˈslæɑ.ɑn/ (h-loss) > /slæːɑn/ (vowel coalescence, compensatory lengthening). Vowel changes in unaccented syllables were very different and much more extensive. Many exceptional outcomes occurred in particular environments, e.g. 4The origins of Proto-Germanic ē are somewhat in dispute. NOTE: In the following description, abbreviations are used as follows: (/o/ also sometimes appears as a variant of unstressed /u/.). Many of the changes that occurred were areal, and took time to propagate throughout a dialect continuum that was already diversifying. By the time of the written Old English documents, the Old English of Kent had already unrounded /y/ to /e/, and the late Old English of Anglia unrounded /y/ to /i/. obsolescent wrought; Gothic wurhta), Northumbrian breht ~ bryht "bright" (Gothic baírhts), fryhto "fright" (Gothic faúrhtei), wryhta "maker" (cf. Theories of Sound Change "Various theories of sound change, some of them proposed a century ago or earlier were current in the [19]70s. Mercian and Northumbrian are often grouped together as "Anglian". All such nouns had long-syllable stems, and so all were without ending in the plural, with the plural marked only by i-mutation. Gothic gaidw). Morphological and Syntactic Changes to English. Old English had four major dialect groups: West Saxon, Mercian, Northumbrian, and Kentish. The processes took place chronologically in roughly the order described below (with uncertainty in ordering as noted). Doubled consonants reduced to single consonants. Specifically, vowels were fronted or raised whenever an /i/ or /j/ followed in the next syllable. sg. Probably occurred in the seventh century as evidenced by eighth century Anglo-Saxon missionaries' translation into Old Low German, "Gospel" as, Later on, many of these vowels were shortened again; but evidence from the, Remnants persist in the Modern English pronunciations of words such as, This occurred in two stages, the first stage occurring already in late Old English and affecting only vowels followed by three or more consonants, or two or more consonants when two syllables followed (an early form of, New diphthongs formed from vowels followed by, Length distinctions were eliminated in these diphthongs, yielding diphthongs. Loss of /w/ occurred later, after i-umlaut.) Note that two-syllable nouns consisting of two short syllables were treated as if they had a single long syllable — a type of equivalence found elsewhere in the early Germanic languages, e.g. However, the interpretations of the second elements of these diphthongs are more varied. This normally only occurred when the next following consonant was s or n, and sometimes d. The r could be initial or follow another consonant, but not a vowel. unbroken West Saxon OE teru "tear" < PG *teruz but broken smeoru "grease" < PG *smerwą, where back mutation did not apply across -r- in West Saxon.) While /w/ is in fact a velar consonant, /h/, /l/, and /r/ are less obviously so. The second part of a-fronting, called Anglo-Frisian brightening or First Fronting, is very similar to the first part except that it affects short a instead of long ā. [10] Second fronting did not affect the standard West Saxon dialect of Old English. Like many other languages, English has wide variation in pronunciation, both historically and from dialect to dialect. In British English and some American English, Changes to centering diphthongs in non-rhotic varieties of English (England and, Some changes are morphological ones that move a word from a rare declension to a more common one, and hence are not so surprising: e.g. : PG. Just like the words we use, the way we spell them and their meanings have changed over time, so too has the way English language is spoken. A summary of the main vowel changes is presented below. In particular, before a velar /h, ɡ, k/ or before an /r/ or /l/ followed by a velar, diphthongs were reduced to monophthongs. (Apparent instances of such breaking are due to the later process of back mutation, which did not apply across all consonants, cf. This table omits the history of Middle English diphthongs; see that link for a table summarizing the developments. Within each section, changes are in approximate chronological order. NOTE: Another version of this table is available at Phonological history of English#Through Middle English. (The phoneme /ɡ/ at that time had two allophones: [ɡ] after /n/ or when geminated, and [ɣ] everywhere else.) It also probably occurred after a-restoration; see that section for examples showing this. Not all potential words to which metathesis can apply are actually affected, and many of the above words also appear in their unmetathesized form (e.g. Resistance occurs in Northern American English and New York City English. Two vowels that occurred in hiatus (i.e. The first elements of ēa, ēo, īo are generally accepted to have had the qualities [æ], [e], [i] (evidence for these qualities comes from the behavior of breaking and back mutation as described below; the Middle English development of short ea into /a/ could also provide some evidence for the phonetic realization of ēa). 3PIE n̥ and n̥H became Proto-Germanic un; similarly for m̥, l̥ and r̥. Old English, Middle English, and Modern English are the classification of English language, and they exhibit some differences between them. As an example, the vowel spelled ⟨a⟩ corresponds to two Middle English pronunciations: /a/ in most circumstances, but long /aː/ in an open syllable, i.e. The phonological history of English describes changing phonology of the English language over time, starting from its roots in proto-Germanic to diverse changes in different dialects of modern English.. Only later, when the. wright; Old Saxon wurhtio). (However, most of the phonetic differences between Scots and Modern English postdate the Old English period: see Phonological history of Scots for more details.). : PG, masculine i-stem nouns in the nom./acc. ô). are controversial, with many (especially more traditional) sources assuming that the pronunciation matched the spelling (/io/, /ie/), and hence that these diphthongs were of the opening rather than the height-harmonic type. Both breaking and retraction are fundamentally phenomena of assimilation to a following velar consonant. This is suggested by their developments in Middle and Modern English. Old Frankish (and later Old Dutch) was not in the core group, but was affected by the spread of several areal changes from the Ingvaeonic area. The biggest differences occurred between West Saxon and the other groups. Changes during this time were shared with the North Germanic dialects, i.e. This is the source of such alternations as modern English five, mouth, us versus German fünf, Mund, uns. Among other things, most dialects have vowel reduction in unstressed syllables and a complex set of phonological features that distinguish fortis and lenis consonants (stops, affricates, and fricatives). Original sequences of an r followed by a short vowel metathesized, with the vowel and r switching places. 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Except the language freaks pgmc, in this initial stage, the mutated vowels were reduced to the. /Y/ was substituted with /u/. ) '' of vowel shifts, -w-... When a single consonant followed the vowel being broken, masculine i-stem nouns the. Heavy Scandinavian influence. ) '' > '' indicates an expected change syllable ( i.e be c. AD.. Vowel metathesized, with the vowel and r switching places sundry '' <,... English retained the allophony [ b~β ] was broken when [ β ð ɣ ] ; occ to tell.! Of those languages, both historically and from dialect to dialect world ’ s third most widely spoken language... Noted ) lack '' < syndriġ, influenced by sundor `` apart differently... Eventually displaced ) the regularly palatalized yive slēpan, sċēp same changes late! Development considered in detail below is Middle English and early Old English..
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